Daily Current Affairs for UPSC 21st Oct 2025

Why do elephants face a jumbo challenge?

• GS Paper 3: Environment – Conservation, Biodiversity, Wildlife Protection, Environmental Pollution, and Degradation.

 The Synchronized All-India Elephant Estimation (SAIEE) 2021–25 was conducted across four major elephant landscapes:

 1. Western Ghats 

 2. North Eastern Hills and Brahmaputra Flood Plains 

 3. Shivalik Hills and Gangetic Plains 

 4. Central India and Eastern Ghats The study estimates 22,446 elephants, a sharp decline from 29,964 recorded in 2017 — a drop of nearly 7,500 elephants (about 25%). 

  Why Was a New Methodology Adopted?

• Earlier censuses (since 1929) relied on direct count methods, such as visual sightings, dung counts, and waterhole observations.
• These older methods lacked uniformity and scientific accuracy.
• The DNA-based estimation used in 2021–25 offers higher precision by analysing genetic material from dung samples, ensuring individual identification and avoiding duplication.
• It also provides a baseline for future monitoring using uniform scientific parameters across regions.

  1. Population Distribution

• Western Ghats Landscape (Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu):
• Accounts for 53.7% of total elephants (11,934).
• Karnataka leads with 6,013 elephants, followed by Tamil Nadu (3,136) and Kerala (2,785).
• North Eastern Hills and Brahmaputra Flood Plains:
• Second highest population (22.2%) with 4,159 elephants, mainly in Assam and Arunachal Pradesh.
• Shivalik Hills and Gangetic Plains:
• Include Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, and Bihar — smaller, fragmented populations.
• Central India and Eastern Ghats:
• Spread across Odisha, Chhattisgarh, and Jharkhand.
• Odisha alone hosts 912 elephants, but faces intense human-wildlife conflict.

• Habitat fragmentation and loss:
• Expansion of agriculture, tea and coffee plantations, and mining in elephant corridors.
• Linear infrastructure:
• Highways, rail lines, and power lines disrupt migratory routes.
• Human encroachment:
• Urban expansion near forest fringes reduces safe habitat zones.
• Poaching and electrocution:
• Ongoing threats in regions with weak enforcement.
• Climate change:
• Altering forest composition and water availability, affecting food sources.

• Increasing overlap between human settlements and elephant corridors has led to frequent crop raiding, property damage, and loss of lives.
• For example:
• Bannergatta National Park (Karnataka) and Valparai (Tamil Nadu) record multiple annual fatalities.
• The Niligiri Biosphere Reserve remains a major conflict hotspot.
• Conflicts are more acute during migration seasons, when elephants traverse between fragmented forest patches in search of food and water.

• Project Elephant (1992):
• Focus on protection, habitat restoration, and corridor preservation.
• Elephant Corridors Initiative:
• Identification of 101 critical elephant corridors across India.
• Gaj Yatra Campaign:
• Nationwide awareness drive for elephant conservation.
• Eco-sensitive Zones (ESZs):
• Buffer protection around elephant reserves.

• Integrate land-use planning with wildlife corridors in infrastructure projects.
• Introduce landscape-level management rather than isolated forest protection.
• Employ early-warning systems using drones and sensors to prevent human-elephant clashes.
• Encourage community participation in mitigation through compensation schemes and sustainable livelihoods.

1. Habitat Restoration: o Reconnect fragmented corridors through afforestation and land purchase schemes. 

  2. Technology Integration: o Use GPS-collared tracking, AI-based surveillance, and acoustic sensors for elephant monitoring.

  3. Community Involvement: o Promote coexistence via eco-tourism, education, and fair compensation policies. 

  4. Legal Protection: o Strengthen enforcement under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 and ensure ecological impact assessments for new projects.

  5. Regional Cooperation: o Encourage cross-border coordination with Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh for migratory herds. 

  UPSC Mains: Q. "The fragmentation of elephant habitats has intensified human–elephant conflicts in India. Examine the underlying causes and suggest measures to ensure coexistence."

Microbial link between arsenic in soil, lower rice yield uncovered

The findings hold major implications for agricultural practices in arsenic-prone regions like West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and parts of China and Bangladesh, where rice is a staple crop.

  What is the Issue All About?

• Arsenic contamination in paddy fields has long been linked to reduced rice yield and arsenic accumulation in grains, posing health risks to millions dependent on rice.
• The new research shows that the type of microbes in the soil determines whether arsenic is converted into toxic forms or neutralised.
• Managing this microbial balance can therefore be the key to maintaining both productivity and food safety.

  1. Microbial Role in Arsenic Transformation

• Arsenic-methylating bacteria convert organic arsenic into its toxic forms, such as dimethylarsinic acid (DMA) and dimethylarsonate (DMMTA).
• Demethylating archaea, on the other hand, detoxify arsenic by breaking these compounds down.
• The balance between these two microbial types determines the extent of arsenic buildup in rice grains and the likelihood of disease outbreaks like straighthead disease.

• A physiological disorder in rice where grains remain empty or deformed despite normal growth.
• The study shows that high arsenic-methylating activity leads to more DMA and DMMTA accumulation, increasing the risk of the disease.

• Soils younger than 700 years tend to have more arsenic-methylating bacteria, making them more prone to toxic buildup.
• Older soils, dominated by demethylating microbes, display natural resilience against arsenic toxicity.

• The study covered rice fields in China, but the findings extend to newly cultivated paddy areas in the U.S., southern Europe, and northeast China, all showing similar microbial patterns.
• In India, eastern states that rely heavily on groundwater irrigation are particularly vulnerable, as arsenic contamination in groundwater directly affects soil microbial ecology.

• Arsenic compounds like DMA and DMMTA are classified as carcinogenic, and rice contributes nearly 40% of dietary arsenic intake globally.
• High levels of toxic arsenic in rice pose risks of cancer, neurological disorders, and cardiovascular diseases.

• Optimising water management: Controlled irrigation and midseason drainage can reduce arsenic solubility.
• Balanced fertiliser use: Excessive nitrogen can stimulate methylating microbes; soil fertility practices must avoid altering microbial ratios.

• Soil microbiome management through bioengineering or organic amendments.
• Development of arsenic-resistant rice varieties through genetic research.
• Inclusion of arsenic mitigation in climate adaptation policies, as changing temperature and flooding regimes can alter microbial ecology.

• India is the second-largest rice producer and top consumer globally; arsenic contamination threatens food security and export competitiveness.
• The findings align with FAO and WHO standards, which set strict limits for inorganic arsenic in food products.
• At the national level, it calls for integrating arsenic-safe agriculture within programmes like National Food Security Mission and Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY).

• Shifts focus from chemical testing to biological soil health, recognising microbes as critical regulators of soil safety.
• Enhances understanding of soil–microbe–plant interactions, a crucial area for sustainable agriculture.
• Reinforces the need for multidisciplinary soil management integrating microbiology, climate science, and agricultural policy.

 1. Promote microbiome-based soil management — through organic farming, crop rotation, and bio-fertilisers. 

 2. Encourage research on microbial ecology in arsenic-affected regions. 3. Set up early warning systems for soil toxicity in high-risk zones.

 4. Integrate arsenic mitigation into rural health and nutrition policies to reduce long-term exposure risks. 

  UPSC Mains: Q. “Recent research highlights that soil microbes, rather than arsenic levels alone, determine crop yield and food safety. Discuss how understanding microbial ecology can help mitigate agricultural and public health challenges in India.”

Why emergency care needs to be prioritised 

  Syllabus Mapping:

• GS Paper 2: Governance – Issues relating to health, government policies, and service delivery mechanisms.

  What Is It All About?

Emergency care is the first line of medical response during sudden circulatory or pathological disturbances. It involves prompt diagnosis, stabilization, and intervention — often within minutes.

• This principle highlights that the first 10 minutes after an emergency are crucial for life-saving intervention.
• Originating from trauma and cardiac emergency protocols, it underscores that rapid diagnosis, stabilization, and transport can drastically reduce preventable mortality.
• The world has now evolved from “Golden Hour” to “Platinum Ten Minutes,” recognizing the importance of ultra-rapid response mechanisms.

  1. Ambulance Infrastructure: o India’s emergency medical response has improved with schemes like 108 Emergency Services and National Health Mission support. o Most ambulances are now equipped with oxygen, defibrillators, ECG, IV fluids, and basic trauma management tools.

  2. Response Time Challenge: o Despite better equipment, India’s average ambulance response time remains over 15 minutes, while the international benchmark is under 4 minutes. o Rural areas suffer from lack of ambulance availability, GPS tracking, and poor road connectivity. 3. Skill Gap: o Many ambulance drivers lack paramedic or emergency medical technician (EMT) training. o Even in urban areas, there are limited trained personnel per capita to handle mass emergencies. 

  4. Operational Deficiencies: o No national standardization in emergency response protocols. o Absence of integrated command centres for triage, dispatch, and coordination across hospitals. 

  What the Article Emphasizes

1. Emergency Care as a Public Right

• Access to timely emergency medical care must be treated as a constitutional right, as part of the right to life under Article 21.
• State governments must ensure universal emergency coverage, especially for vulnerable populations and remote regions.

• The article calls for:
• National Ambulance Standards for design, staffing, and equipment.
• Uniform training certification for EMTs and paramedics.
• Regulatory oversight by health authorities to ensure quality emergency services.

• Emergency systems should align with disaster management frameworks, capable of handling mass casualty situations such as accidents, stampedes, or floods.

• Private hospitals, which often possess better trauma infrastructure, must be integrated into state emergency networks through public-private partnerships (PPP).
• Referral linkages between ambulance dispatch and hospitals can prevent unnecessary delays.

  1. Policy Integration: o Establish a National Emergency Care Authority under the Ministry of Health. o Develop National Emergency Response Standards (NERS) for all states.

  2. Capacity Building: o Mandatory training and certification for all emergency responders. o Expansion of emergency medicine departments in medical colleges. 

  3. Technology and Innovation: o Use of AI-enabled tracking, telemedicine, and mobile apps for emergency triage and nearest-hospital mapping. o Integrate GIS-based routing for faster response times. 

  4. Public Awareness: o Citizens must be educated about first-aid response, CPR, and emergency hotline use (112). o Encourage a community first responder model, similar to rural fire services. Significance:

• Strengthening emergency medical care is central to achieving Universal Health Coverage (UHC).
• It enhances India’s disaster preparedness, supports the Ayushman Bharat vision, and aligns with the Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 3.8) — ensuring access to essential health services.

Q. “Emergency medical care should be viewed not merely as a service but as a constitutional right. Discuss the challenges in India’s emergency healthcare system and suggest measures for reform.”

Women form 49% of total hospital admissions with Ayushman Bharat 

 According to the National Health Authority (NHA) Annual Report (2024–25), women now constitute 49% of total hospital admissions under the Ayushman Bharat Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana (AB-PMJAY).

  What is the News About?

• The report highlights that nearly half of all hospitalisations under Ayushman Bharat are now women beneficiaries.
• This improvement demonstrates the success of targeted outreach programmes and the government’s efforts to ensure equitable access to healthcare services.

• Gender Equity in Healthcare: Marks a transformation in women’s healthcare utilisation, addressing long-standing socio-economic barriers.
• Strengthening Social Security: AB-PMJAY continues to be the world’s largest health assurance scheme, ensuring financial protection for vulnerable families.
• Inclusivity: Special efforts to reach frontline workers, senior citizens, and marginalised populations deepen the scheme’s social impact.
• Public Health Milestone: Reflects India’s progress toward Universal Health Coverage (UHC) and aligns with SDG 3 – Good Health and Well-being.

 Answer: (b) 2 and 3 only

Manufacturers pass on GST cut benefits across 54 daily use items:   Finance Minister                                    

Union Finance Minister Nirmala Sitharaman announced that manufacturers have passed on the benefits of GST rate cuts across 54 essential and consumer items — including two-wheelers, four-wheelers, electronics, and household goods — under the government’s “GST Bachat Utsav” initiative. · The move follows the simplification of GST slabs — from four (5%, 12%, 18%, and 28%) to two main slabs: 5% and 18%, with a special 40% slab for certain luxury goods. · The aim is to make daily essentials and durables more affordable, stimulate consumer spending, and strengthen supply–demand linkages in the economy. · This announcement reflects the government’s intent to ensure that tax reductions reach the final consumer, thereby boosting demand, consumption, and economic growth. 

  Key Highlights:

1. Items Covered: o Two-wheelers, three-wheelers, and four-wheelers o Television sets and consumer durables o Tableware, kitchen utensils, personal care, and nutrition products 

  2. Economic Impact: o Two-wheeler sales rose to 21.6 lakh units in September (highest monthly sales for Hero MotoCorp). o Three-wheeler dispatches up 5.5% YoY. o Passenger vehicle sales at 3.72 lakh units; tractor sales doubled. o Television sales grew by 30–35%, reflecting rising consumer demand. o Electronics manufacturing recorded double-digit growth, supported by higher festive demand. 

  3. Price Reductions: o Actual price decreases in some goods went beyond GST rate cuts, especially for tableware, utensils, and kitchen items. o The government noted food deflation of about -2%, indicating price stability in essentials. 

  4. Broader Policy Context: o The GST rate cuts complement earlier income tax reductions (Feb 2025 Budget) aimed at boosting disposable income and consumer spending. o These reforms collectively support India’s trajectory as the fastest-growing large economy in the world. Significance:

• Consumer Welfare: Ensures reduced taxes translate to lower retail prices for end-users.
• Economic Stimulus: Boosts consumption, production, and investment—creating a multiplier effect on GDP.
• Inflation Control: Encourages competition among producers, helping contain inflation while sustaining demand.
• Ease of Doing Business: Simplified GST structure enhances tax compliance and predictability for businesses.

 Answer: (a) 1 only

At IMO, 57 nations vote for delaying framework for carbon-free shipping

Syllabus Mapping: GS Paper 3 – Environment and Ecology: Conservation, pollution control, and environmental impact of industries, International environmental governance – UN agencies, climate agreements.

Context: The International Maritime Organization (IMO) — the UN body responsible for regulating international shipping — has postponed the implementation of a new framework aimed at reducing carbon emissions from global shipping.

  Background: The IMO and the Carbon-Free Shipping Agenda

• IMO’s Mandate:
  The IMO, a specialized UN agency, oversees safety, environmental performance, and legal frameworks for international shipping.
  Given that shipping accounts for nearly 3% of global CO₂ emissions, decarbonizing the sector has become crucial for meeting global climate targets under the Paris Agreement.
• IMO GHG Strategy (2023):
  The 2023 framework envisioned:
• At least a 40% reduction in carbon intensity by 2030 (compared to 2008 levels).
• Net-zero GHG emissions by 2050.
• The introduction of a global fuel standard and carbon pricing mechanism for international ships starting 2027.

• In April 2025, a sub-committee of the IMO approved the draft framework.
• The final vote was scheduled in October 2025 in London for formal adoption.
• However, after intense lobbying and political pressure, particularly from the United States, Saudi Arabia, and Russia, 57 nations voted to delay the framework’s adoption by a year.

• In favor of delay: 57 countries (including the U.S.)
• Against delay: 49 countries (including EU members and small island nations)
• Abstained: 21 countries
• India’s voting position was not disclosed.

  1. U.S. Opposition and Pressure:

• The U.S. administration under President Donald Trump strongly opposed the plan, citing potential economic burdens on American consumers and industries.
• Trump labeled the IMO initiative as a “Green New Scam,” urging allied countries to vote against it.
• The U.S. argued that the proposal could raise fuel costs, disrupt global trade, and increase shipping prices for essential goods.

• Some developing and oil-exporting countries (e.g., Saudi Arabia, Russia) feared that carbon pricing could make maritime trade disproportionately expensive for poorer economies.
• They argued for “common but differentiated responsibilities” — a core principle of the Paris Agreement — to ensure equity in burden-sharing.

• Small island nations, such as Vanuatu, Tuvalu, and Maldives, condemned the decision.
• They argued that further delay in decarbonizing shipping jeopardizes their survival, as rising sea levels directly threaten their existence.
• Vanuatu’s Climate Minister described the vote as a “failure of global climate leadership.”

  1. Global Emission Impact:

• International shipping contributes ~1 billion tonnes of CO₂ annually — more than the emissions of Germany or Japan.
• Without intervention, emissions could increase by 30% by 2050, making it impossible to stay within the 1.5°C global warming limit.

• Low-Carbon Fuel Standard (LCFS): Gradual shift from heavy fuel oil to ammonia, methanol, or hydrogen-based fuels.
• Global Carbon Levy: Charging ships based on CO₂ emitted per ton of cargo per mile, to incentivize cleaner fuels.
• Green Shipping Corridors: Routes prioritizing low-emission ships between major ports.

  Why This Delay Matters

• The postponement pushes back critical climate milestones in a sector already lagging in emission reduction.
• It raises questions about global climate governance and the influence of geopolitics on environmental decision-making.
• The decision may also weaken investor confidence in the global transition to clean maritime fuels.

• Environmental groups, including Greenpeace and the Clean Shipping Coalition, criticized the vote, calling it a “betrayal of the Paris Agreement.”
• They argue that delaying carbon measures locks in fossil-fuel dependency and worsens climate risks for coastal and island nations.

• The IMO plans to reconvene in 2026 to finalize the framework.
• Countries like Singapore, which led the delay motion, claim they need more time to evaluate implementation costs and technical feasibility.
• Experts emphasize the need for a just transition — balancing climate goals with trade and economic realities.

• Though India’s vote was not confirmed, it is likely that India supported flexibility in timelines, given concerns about developing-country competitiveness and the cost of green technology adoption.
• India, however, continues to advocate for capacity building and technology transfer to help developing maritime nations transition sustainably.

 Answer: (c) 1 and 3 only

Chandrayaan-2 makes first-ever observations on lunar exosphere: ISRO

  Context: India’s second lunar mission, Chandrayaan-2, has achieved a major scientific milestone by making the first-ever observation of the impact of the Sun’s Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) on the lunar exosphere — the Moon’s extremely thin outermost atmospheric layer.

  What is it All About? 

 The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) reported that CHACE-2 detected a significant increase in the total pressure of the dayside lunar exosphere when a powerful solar CME event impacted the Moon in May 2024.

• The lunar exosphere is the outermost, extremely tenuous layer of gases surrounding the Moon.
• It contains atoms like sodium (Na), potassium (K), helium (He), argon (Ar), and other trace elements that exist at extremely low densities — so much so that they rarely collide with one another.
• It is often referred to as a surface-bound exosphere, where particles are ejected from the lunar surface due to:
• Solar radiation
• Micrometeorite impacts
• Solar wind bombardment

• A CME is a massive burst of plasma and magnetic fields released from the Sun’s corona into space.
• When directed toward celestial bodies, CMEs can disturb their atmospheres or magnetic fields.
• On Earth, such events can trigger geomagnetic storms, disrupt satellites, and cause auroras.
• On the Moon, which lacks a protective magnetic field or dense atmosphere, CMEs directly interact with the surface.

  1. Observation Date: o The event occurred on May 10, 2024, when a series of CMEs struck the Moon. 

  2. Major Observation: o The total pressure of the lunar exosphere increased by more than an order of magnitude (i.e., over 10 times higher than normal). o This was caused by atoms being knocked off the lunar surface (a process called sputtering) due to the impact of solar plasma. 3. Scientific Confirmation: o The result aligns with theoretical models that had predicted such an effect but had never been empirically observed before. o Chandrayaan-2’s CHACE-2 payload has now confirmed it for the first time. 

  Scientific and Strategic Significance 

  1. Understanding Space Weather

• The findings enhance our understanding of how solar radiation and plasma events affect airless bodies like the Moon.
• It provides crucial data for space weather modelling, which is essential for planning human missions to the lunar surface.

• Future lunar bases (as planned under projects like Artemis or India’s Bharatiya Lunar Programme) will need to account for:
• Sudden increases in surface particle activity.
• Changes in surface charging and radiation exposure during CME events.
• Such variations can impact electronic equipment, solar panels, and human habitats on the Moon.

• This milestone highlights ISRO’s growing role in planetary science and heliophysics (the study of the Sun’s influence on the Solar System).
• It reinforces India’s status as a leading nation in lunar exploration, following Chandrayaan-3’s successful soft landing at the lunar south pole.

• Full Form: Chandra’s Atmospheric Composition Explorer-2
• Objective: To study the composition and variations in the lunar exosphere.
• Carried Aboard: Chandrayaan-2 Orbiter
• Functionality: Measures neutral atoms and molecules using a quadrupole mass spectrometer, allowing detection of trace elements and gases around the Moon.

• Launch Date: July 22, 2019
• Launch Vehicle: GSLV Mk-III M1 (Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle)
• Components:
• Orbiter – continues to function and send data.
• Vikram Lander – attempted soft landing but lost communication.
• Pragyan Rover – housed within Vikram.
• Despite the lander’s crash, the orbiter continues to perform vital scientific observations, including this latest breakthrough.

 Answer: (c) 1 and 3 only

The most ancient Indian wolf is set to be a new species

  About the Indian Wolf

• Scientific Name: Canis lupus pallipes
• Current Classification: Subspecies of the grey wolf (Canis lupus).
• Proposed Change: Recognition as a distinct species based on genetic, ecological, and morphological evidence.
• Habitat: Semi-arid scrublands, grasslands, and open plains across peninsular and northwestern India, extending into Pakistan.
• Population: Estimated at 3,000 individuals.
• IUCN Status: Listed as “Vulnerable”, signifying a high risk of extinction in the wild.
• Protection in India: Included under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972, ensuring the highest level of legal protection.

Recent genetic studies suggest that the Indian wolf is evolutionarily distinct from other grey wolf populations found in Eurasia and North America.

• It possesses unique mitochondrial DNA and distinct morphological traits, such as:
• Shorter, thinner fur suited for hot, arid climates.
• Smaller body size and a more slender build.
• Adaptations to open, semi-desert habitats unlike the forested or tundra regions preferred by other wolf species.

  1. Habitat Loss and Fragmentation

• Expansion of renewable energy projects, such as solar farms and wind turbines, is fragmenting grasslands.
• Infrastructure projects like highways, railways, and industrial zones have encroached on wolf den sites.
• Example: In Kutch (Gujarat), an entire den site studied by scientists is now part of the Adani Solar Farm.

• Wolves are often poisoned by villagers for preying on livestock, as the natural prey base (small mammals, deer) is depleting.
• Reports show increasing wolf-human conflicts, such as the Bahraich (Uttar Pradesh) incident in 2024, where multiple people were attacked, leading to retaliatory killings of entire packs.

• Overgrazing by livestock, agricultural expansion, and unregulated land use have reduced wild prey populations, forcing wolves closer to human settlements.

• Despite being a non-aggressive species, wolves are persecuted out of fear or misinformation.
• Their persecution continues even though they rarely attack humans.

• India’s grasslands are often misclassified as “wastelands”, leading to neglect in ecological planning and funding.
• The Indian wolf, like bustards and other grassland species, lacks dedicated protected areas, making conservation challenging.
• There is no national conservation strategy for the Indian wolf despite its ecological importance and genetic uniqueness.

• The Indian wolf deserves to be recognized as a distinct species due to its evolutionary significance.
• Urgent need for a national policy and management plan focusing on semi-arid ecosystems.

• Recognition as a vulnerable species can help attract international funding and policy attention.
• Wolves, like bustards, act as “models for coexistence”, thriving outside formal protected areas.

• Communities living alongside wolves must be financially incentivized for protecting them.
• Emphasis on community-based conservation rather than exclusionary protection.

  UPSC Prelims: Q. Consider the following statements regarding the Indian wolf (Canis lupus pallipes): 1. The Indian wolf is currently classified as a subspecies of the grey wolf but may soon be recognized as a distinct species. 2. It inhabits mainly forest ecosystems across central India. 3. It is listed under Schedule I of the Wildlife Protection Act, 1972. 4. It is classified as “Vulnerable” by the IUCN. Which of the statements given above are correct?
(a) 1, 2 and 4 only
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only
(c) 2, 3 and 4 only
(d) 1 and 4 only

  Answer: (b) 1, 3 and 4 only

Gudalur’s violet revival: the kurinji  blooms again 

  Syllabus Mapping:

• GS Paper 3 – Environment and Ecology: Conservation of biodiversity; ecosystems and their services, Environmental degradation and sustainable development, Role of local communities in environmental protection
• GS Paper 1 – Geography: Flora and fauna of India; distribution of natural vegetation, Human-environment interaction in the Western Ghats.

  About the Kurinji (Neelakurinji) Flower

• Scientific Name: Strobilanthes kunthiana (Neelakurinji)
• Family: Acanthaceae
• Habitat: High-altitude grasslands of the Western Ghats, typically above 1,300 meters.
• Blooming Cycle:
• Neelakurinji blooms once every 12 years.
• Strobilanthes sessilis blooms once every 8 years.
• Other Strobilanthes species bloom in cycles of 4, 8, 10, or 12 years.
• Geographical Range: Found in the Nilgiris, Palani Hills, Kodaikanal, Munnar, and Agasthyamala ranges.
• Etymology: The name “Neelakurinji” literally means “blue flower” (Neela = blue; kurinji = hill region).

• The blooming of Kurinji acts as a natural barometer of ecological health.
• Healthy, undisturbed grasslands ensure synchronized mass flowering, whereas fragmented or degraded habitats lead to patchy and irregular blooming.
• Thus, Kurinji blooms serve as climate and ecosystem indicators.

• Kurinji blooms attract a wide range of pollinators, including butterflies, honeybees, and hornbills, creating temporary surges in local biodiversity.
• The flowers are rich in nectar, vital for sustaining insect and bird populations during the blooming season.
• The grasslands supporting Kurinji are home to elephants, gaurs, leopards, and numerous endemic plant species.

• The Neelakurinji is deeply ingrained in Tamil and Kerala traditions, symbolizing purity and rarity.
• The Paliyan tribes of Tamil Nadu use Kurinji blooming cycles to measure age — one bloom (12 years) equals one life phase.
• It is also emblematic of the Western Ghats’ natural heritage, often referred to as the “blue mountains” during the blooming season.

  1. Habitat Loss and Grassland Conversion

• Over the past century, large tracts of grasslands in the Nilgiris and Western Ghats have been converted into plantations (tea, eucalyptus, black wattle, and pine) and solar farms.
• This has shrunk native Kurinji habitats, reducing the frequency and extent of flowering.

• Erratic rainfall and rising temperatures have altered flowering patterns.
• For instance, the Strobilanthes homotropo in Doddabetta bloomed in 2011 but failed to regenerate due to unfavorable climatic conditions.

• Mass blooming attracts heavy tourist influx, leading to trampling of fragile plants, waste accumulation, and soil compaction.
• Scientists emphasize the need for regulated eco-tourism to ensure the sustainability of future blooms.

  2. Monitoring and Research: o Botanists and forest officers are documenting Kurinji bloom patterns and their correlation with rainfall, altitude, and temperature variations. o Around 33 Kurinji species have been identified across the Nilgiris alone, each with varying blooming periodicities and color shades — from pale violet to deep blue. 

  3. Community Involvement: o Indigenous communities are being encouraged to participate in conservation by reviving traditional ecological knowledge about plant cycles and sustainable grazing. Ecological Message Behind the Bloom

• The mass flowering of Kurinji is nature’s way of rejuvenating the landscape.
• Once the plants bloom, they set seeds and die, allowing the next generation to germinate.
• This cyclical regeneration maintains soil fertility, moisture retention, and biodiversity stability in the montane grasslands.
• The event thus underscores the importance of protecting grasslands as unique ecosystems, not wastelands — a major gap in Indian conservation policy.

• Prof. Supriya Sahu (IAS):
  The blooming in newly notified reserve forests signifies biodiversity comeback and reflects improved habitat protection.
• Prof. Kunhikrisnan (Western Ghats expert):
  Kurinji are indicator species — their presence marks healthy ecosystems. The loss of grasslands is pushing many species towards extinction.
• A.K. Pradeep (Naturalist):
  Over 150 Kurinji species have been identified globally, of which India hosts 60 — highlighting its endemism and global importance.

 Answer: (a) 1, 2 and 4 only

New Development Bank: Pakistan Seeks China’s Help for Membership 

Syllabus: GS Paper II – International Relations Context

  Key Points:

• Establishment: NDB, formerly known as the BRICS Development Bank, was created by Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa (BRICS) to support infrastructure and sustainable development.
  
  
• Headquarters: The bank is based in Shanghai, China, with regional offices in South Africa and Brazil.
  
  
• Objective: It aims to mobilize resources for projects related to clean energy, transport infrastructure, water and sanitation, environmental protection, social infrastructure, and digital development.
  
  
• Capital Structure: NDB has an initial capital of USD 100 billion, with equal contributions from its five founding members.
  
  
• Voting Rights: Each member country holds equal voting power, unlike other international banks such as the World Bank or ADB.
  
  
• Governance: The governance structure includes a Board of Governors consisting of finance ministers from the BRICS countries and a Board of Directors. The presidency and vice-presidency rotate among the BRICS members.
  
  
• Membership: Open to any UN member, with countries like Pakistan seeking to join through diplomatic channels, notably via China’s support.
  
  

We Rise Initiative: Empowering Women Entrepreneurs 

• Launch: The "We Rise" initiative was launched jointly by NITI Aayog and DP World under the WEP’s Award to Reward (ATR) initiative.
  
  
• Objective: The initiative focuses on helping Indian women entrepreneurs scale their businesses globally through mentorship, trade facilitation, and strategic collaborations.
  
  
• Target Group: The initiative specifically targets product-centric women entrepreneurs, helping them expand their reach and market access.
  
  
• Public-Private Collaboration: It is a unique partnership between the public and private sectors to increase trade opportunities for women entrepreneurs and foster business growth.
  
  
• Women Entrepreneurship Platform (WEP): Established by NITI Aayog in 2018, WEP became a public-private partnership in 2022, aimed at strengthening India’s women entrepreneurship ecosystem.
  
  
  
• Function of WEP: WEP provides comprehensive support to women entrepreneurs, including access to finance, market linkages, training, mentoring, compliance assistance, and business development services.
  
  
  

• Establishment: The FAO was founded in October 1945 and is the oldest permanent specialized agency of the United Nations.
  
  
• Mandate: Its main goal is to improve nutrition, increase agricultural productivity, raise living standards in rural areas, and contribute to global economic growth.
  
  
• Functions: FAO coordinates international efforts in agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and land and water resources. It is also at the forefront of global efforts to combat hunger.
  
  
• Global Role: The FAO serves as a platform for negotiating agreements and provides technical knowledge to support development in both developing and developed countries.
  
  
• Members: FAO has 195 members, including 194 countries and the European Union. India is a founding member.
  
  
• Funding: The organization is funded by contributions from its member countries.
  
  
• Reports: FAO publishes key reports such as The State of the World’s Forests (SOFO), The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture (SOFIA), The State of Agricultural Commodity Markets (SOCO), and The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World (SOFI).
  
  
• Headquarters: FAO is headquartered in Rome, Italy.
  
  

  Key Points:

• Exercise Overview: The IN–RoKN Exercise is a bilateral naval exercise between the Indian Navy and the Republic of Korea Navy, aimed at improving collaboration and professional exchanges.
  
  
• Exercise Phases: The exercise is conducted in two phases – the harbour phase and the sea phase.
  
  
• Harbour Phase: Includes reciprocal cross-deck visits, sharing of best practices, cross-training sessions, and sport fixtures.
  
  
• Sea Phase: Joint exercises between INS Sahyadri and ROKS Gyeongnam to enhance operational coordination.
  
  
• Diplomatic Significance: The Commanding Officer of INS Sahyadri will meet senior officers from the Republic of Korea Navy, local dignitaries, and Indian community representatives, reaffirming India’s diplomatic and naval outreach.
  
  
• INS Sahyadri: Commissioned in 2012, it is a guided missile stealth frigate of the Shivalik Class. Built indigenously by Mazagon Dock Shipbuilders in Mumbai, it is equipped with advanced stealth capabilities, weapons systems, and sensors for multi-dimensional warfare.
  
  
• Strategic Importance: This exercise strengthens India’s naval presence and cooperation with South Korea, aligning with India’s strategic interests in the Indo-Pacific region.